Essay about Differences in Gender Roles During the Middle...

Women in the Middle Ages History is marked by specific periods; which illustrates the cultural, economic, religious, and educational setting of the time. One such era is the Middle Ages or Medieval Period. This period that dates from around 850-1400, was defined by the â€Å"Italian Renaissance humanist, Francesco Petrarch, who coined the term Middle Ages to describe the period in European history from the end of the Roman Empire until his own time, the 1300s†. There were many changes that occurred during this span in history; such as the development of cities and the marketplace, which allowed some people to obtain financial wealth and move into a new social bracket. This redistribution of the pecking order was a source of distress for†¦show more content†¦Life in the church consisted of prayer, study, and work. Convents were self-sufficient communities and all nuns were expected to work about 5 to 6 hours a day. In addition to living a life of religious purity; a nun was more liberate d than other women of the Middle Ages because the convent provided nuns opportunities to continue their education and be free of a man’s control. During the Middle Ages there was an influx in the growth of urban life, thus there became a need for more commerce in the marketplace and workers to fulfill that responsibility, which in turn allowed women to join men in the guild sector. Therefore, the third division of women was the free townswoman or a tradesman’s wife. This group of females was skilled in a specific trade and sold their products in the open market alongside their husband’s guild enterprise. The types of jobs that the skilled female laborer might possess were silk worker, midwife, barber, apothecary, book producer and decorations, and manufacturer of food and beverages. In addition, many women within this class distinction worked beside their husband in his guild business, selling whatever product the family association provided the public. More so, the middle class female would act for her husband in his absence, and if the man died the woman was able to continue the business. Although the tr adesman’s wife was capable ofShow MoreRelatedThe Rights of Women in the Middle Ages1154 Words   |  5 Pagesthe world are striving to bring equal rights to the genders. Gender equality is where men and women are represented equally. It doesnt mean that both genders are the same but rather the same value; thus both genders should be given equal treatment. In the fight for equal rights, many feminists have pointed to the Middle Ages as an example of where men are superior to women, and that women had virtually no rights. However, during the Middle Ages with the development of individualism, women had a considerateRead MoreFirst Annotated Bibliography:. The Role Maternal Interaction928 Words   |  4 Pages First Annotated Bibliography: The role maternal interaction plays in gender differentiation in developing children By: Malaysia Clark PSYC 205 Childhood Psychology BL1 Spring 2017 Tompkins Cortland Community College Fausto-Sterling, A., Crews, D., Sung, J., Garcà ­a-Coll, C., Seifer, R. (2015). â€Å"Multimodal sex-related differences in infant and in infant-directed maternal behaviors during months three through twelve of development†. Developmental Psychology, 51(10), 1351-1366. doi:10.1037/dev0000033Read MoreGender Segments And Sex Groups During Childhood And Early Adolescence1475 Words   |  6 PagesIntro: Gender cleavage refers to the tendency for children of the same gender to self-segregate into two same-sex groups, male and female. This phenomenon appears to be a primary factor influencing social and cognitive development during childhood and early adolescence. The peer-reviewed article discussed in this paper focuses on gender cleavage in addition to age-related variances and sex differences during middle childhood. Peer-Review Article: The main point of the article is to analyze cross-sectionalRead MoreGender Roles Have A Significant Impact On The Way We See Ourselves And Others941 Words   |  4 PagesWorkbook Assignment Two Gender roles have a significant impact on the way we see ourselves and others. These roles are learned through our behavior patterns, obligations and privileges that are considered appropriate for each sex. Personally, I view myself as being considerate, emotional, gentle, home oriented, and passive. My parents raised me to portray these feminine characteristics from the day I was born and to act a certain way in our society. Males on the other hand are perceived toRead MoreDifferences Between Female And Female Brains1632 Words   |  7 Pagespersonality traits change in early and middle adulthood by examining the Big Five personality trait dimensions (Goldberg, 1992; John Srivastava, 1999; McCrae Costa, 1999). It will be particularly interesting examining whether change on all of the Big Five dimensions stops or slows in middle adulthood, as predicted by the five-factor theory, or whether change is ongoing and differentiated, as predicted by contextualist theories. Subtle ob servable differences exist between male and female brainsRead MoreThe Pardoners Prologue And Tale By Chaucer Essay1425 Words   |  6 Pagespoor people for financial gain, which was relevant in society during the Middle Ages. In Chaucer’s story, the Pardoner uses his influence and tells a tale of three men to convince the people to pay for him to pardon their sins. Chaucer’s tale and story is often used to emphasize the moral values in our society. There are many points in the tale that are based on the theme of greed being the cause of all evil in humanity, and the Middle Ages was a period of great societal change in Europe. â€Å"The Pardoner’sRead MoreChildren Relational Aggression : Effect Of Children Aggressive On Peers Interaction And Gender Differences1579 Words   |  7 PagesAggressive on Peers Interaction†¨and the Gender Differences in the expression of aggression Nada El Masri Sacramento State University The Effect of Children Aggression on Peers Interaction And Gender Differences In the expression of aggression Relationships with peers have significant importance in the lives of very young children by allowing them to experiment with roles and relationships and develop social cognitiveRead MoreGender Roles Of Women And Women1677 Words   |  7 PagesGender is one of the greatest factors that can determine how we define ourselves and others. Although gender is determined at birth for many, it does not influence one s identity of self until a later age. How society views the roles of each gender influences how a person views themselves. As the views changes, so does one’s identity. In the past, the roles of men and women were defined and separated. Men were expected to provide income for the family, while women were expected to take care of theRead MoreErik Erikson s Development Theory1603 Words   |  7 Pagesgeneralized groups of people whose cultures, genders and environments did not apply to his theory. This paper will focus on Erikson’s last four stages of development, an d discuss how each stage may be impacted by these various factors. Identity vs. Role Confusion The adolescence stage of development in Erikson’s theory was labeled as identity vs. role confusion. Teenagers begin developing a sense of who they are in the world by testing different roles and forming them into a single identity (EriksonRead MoreThe Low Sense Of Self Esteem1548 Words   |  7 Pagesdecrease self esteem thus dictating a person’s behavior. Being a part of a community is nearly essential in the process of becoming an adult because during the teenage years people are constantly shaped into who they will be for the rest of their lives. Throughout my kid and teenage years, I have always been a part of a dance team mixed with people my age, and younger or older. Being a part of several teams has made me feel as though I belong to a group and has helped me to gain a better sense of confidence

Example Of Court Can Apply These Principles-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Example Of Court Can Apply These Principles? Answer: Introducation In contract law or tort law, a party may include an exclusion clause in the contract document. This a term mainly seeks to limit or exclude that party's liabilities for the damages that may arise in case a breach of contract occurs (Poole, 2014). For example, a term may state that no party will that will claim for liability in case any of the contracting parties breached the contract. This paper will be looking at the application of these terms and how the court regulates their applications. Qantas Airlines Ltd Vs Airbus Corporation Ltd Qantas Airlines Ltd signs a contract with Airbus Corporation Ltd for Airbus to build a new aeroplane, but Airbus fails to meet all the terms but relies of a limitation clause stating that their liability is capped at $ 300 000. The main issue here is a challenge an exclusion clause specifying the amount payable when the breach of contract occurs. In particular, its a question whether such clause will apply even where the breach goes to the root of the contract. Coming back to the question, can the exclusion clause then meet its purpose of shielding the party from the claims? Well, many legal minds have had different opinions on this matter including the ruling of (Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd, 1980) which allowed the application of the clause but set some conditions. In summary McKendrick (2012) states that the application relies on the seriousness of the breach. So if the violation gave rise to more serious consequences, the court would likely dismiss the clause. Despite that ruling, many courts in the twentieth and twentieth-first centuries acquire their rationale from (The Unfair Contract Terms Act [UCTA], 1977) and act that work for the protection of consumers rights. The UCTA 1977 terms apply only to those liabilities occurring in the course of business as well as those occurring towards other businesses (Zulhafiz, 2015). It also governs specific cases of unfair terms such as penalty clauses that charge beyond the lim it. In general, the court usually applies the UCTA in the principles of reasonableness test. The reasonable test usually puts the burden of demonstrating the rationale of the exemption clause on the person seeking to use it (Zulhafiz, 2015). For a clause to be reasonable, it must demonstrate that its terms are fair and reasonable (Zulhafiz, 2015). By this, the act requires the terms to take into account that the innocent party was aware of all the circumstances. Secondly, by being reasonable, both parties should have known and contemplated for the existence of the clause when they were making the contract (Zulhafiz, 2015). Third, the court will also take into account other factors like insurance or the option of the other party to seeking advice. For example, the clause failed in (Smith v Bush, 1989) where the defendant relied on a clause exempting him to take liabilities of his negligence. In addition to UCTA principles, there are also principles of common law on the validity of the exclusion clause. For example, the first rule requires the incorporation of an exclusion clause in the contract (Trakic, 2015). The second rule requires the proof that the breaching party gave a reasonable notice of the exclusive clause to the innocent party. Thirdly, the court may also allow the application of the exclusion clause through the evidence of the previous dealings (Trakic, 2015). Another principle that guides the application of exclusion clause in common law is the customs of the trade. Lastly, the exclusion clause must cover the claimed loss. There are various cases which have marked the application of these rules. For instance, in (George Mitchell v Finney Lock Seeds, 1983), The defendants were sellers of seeds, and the claimants were farmers. The claimant contracted with the defendant to supply them with 30 lbs cabbage seeds worth 201. The seeds were defective, and they caused the claimant a loss of over 60,000. The defendants were then relying on the limitation clause that limited their liability for replacing the seeds. The court overturned the clause terming it as unreasonable. The court stated that the losses resulted from the breach of contract so the defendant could not rely on the clause. Another application similar to this case in this paper is the ruling of (St Albans City and District Council v International Computers Ltd, 1996). The claimant entered into a contract with the defendant firm who was a supplier of computer software. The contract needed the defendant to administer their software collection for the claimant. However, the defendant software comprised of an error that caused the claimant a loss of 1.3 million. When the claim went to the court, the defendant raised a defense in reliance on a limitation clause that limited the liabilities to 100,000. The court termed the limitation clause as unreasonable. The court stated that the limited sum was very low considering that defendant could get a backup indemnity from his insurance of 50 million. Considering these facts and rules, it is true that Airbus will rely on their limitation clause which capped the liability at $ 300 000. However, as we have seen, this limitation will not succeed by the unreasonable test. First of all, the damages are too low considering that there is evidence that Qantas makes an average of $ 800 000 profit per day while using such an aircraft. Following the above analysis, the limitation clause will fail. Gemma works for Frank as a salesperson. Gemma lies to Frank to lower the price so that his Niece can buy it. Frank loses a profit from a potential customer who would have bought it at the actual price. The main issue in this question is about fraudulent misrepresentation on an employee who was supposed to act in good faith. In a sole trader business, the owner does not have many regulations, disclosures, requirements for public accountability or government rules that govern the conduct of companies. However, (Stone, 2014) states that the general government obligations for a business exist such as respecting the employment laws. Similarly, their employees have to comply with the general requirement of employees such as the duty to act in good faith. In the cases of where one person into a contract induces the other into the contract through a fraudulent misrepresentation, the other party has the right to seek a remedy of rescission, claim for damages or both. Also, the ruling of (Standard Chartered Bank v Pakistan Shipping Corp, 2002) set it clear that an individual who makes a fraudulent misrepresentation or who acts deceitfully will be personally liable in tort notwithstanding the fact that he is acting as an agent, officer, or entity. A simple definition of fraud in a commercial setting is a statement of opinion where the speaker knows it is false. The false statement can be for a past, present or future event. In proving that there is a fraudulent misrepresentation, the following elements must be available. For one there must be a false statement aimed at deceiving the other party (Klass, 2010). The guilty party must have had the knowledge of the falsity of that statements (Clarkson, Miller, Cross Clarkson, 2015). The Statements intended to lure the victim into surrendering something that would be of value to the innocent party. Lastly, the innocent party got injured. If the named elements exist, then there would be evidence of a fraudulent misrepresentation and the innocent party may seek the following remedies. For one, the claimant may seek to rescind the contract (Riches, Allen Keenan, 2009). This one is an equitable remedy where the court orders the parties to set aside the contract and go back to the position they were before the contract. Second is a claim for the damages or losses (Riches, Allen Keenan, 2009). Here the innocent party receives a financial award to compensate for the incurred losses. Notably, the compensation means to return the injured party to the position it would have been had the fraud not happened. The innocent party also gets the compensation for all losses flowing from the fraud. An application of this rule is found in the case for (Smith New Court Securities Ltd v Scrimgeour VickersLtd, 1996). The defendant's broker induced the claimant to purchase shares at 82p per square when in the market value was 72p per square. A massive fraud also happened with the company where the claimant bought shares lowering the rates further. The claimant subsequently traded the shares for prices for prices that ranged between 30p per square to 49p. The claimant then made a loss of 11.3M. The court allowed the claimant to recover the entire loss flowing from the fraud. Frank would be entitled to recover the extra profit that he would have got had the fraud not happened. He would also have the right to suspend Gemma for now working in good faith. Question 2 (b) Frank V Bob Frank suspends Bob, but Bob enters into a Contract with Angela and defrauds her before he leaves from the business. The main issue here is a question of the authority or the power of an agent to bind his principal with the third party and shift the liabilities to the principal. An employer (principal) can take the liabilities of an agent whom he has terminated his contract. This is due to the power of apparent authority. If the principal fails to notify the third party of the termination of the agency relationship, the court considers it reasonable for a third party to believe that the agent had power as he previously did (Mann, Roberts Smith, 2012). Following this, the principal will have to become responsible for the agents misconduct. The only exception is in the cases of a death of the principal or his incompetence (Beatty, Samuelson Bredeson, 2013). Such cases will withdraw the need for a notification. The reason is that once the principal dies, the agents authority retires back to the principal estate. One application of this rule was in (Racing UK Ltd v Doncaster Racecourse Ltd and Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council, 2005). Doncaster Racecourse Ltd (DR Ltd) managed Doncaster Racecourse on behalf of Doncaster Council (DC). Without informing DC, DR Ltd entered into a contract with Racing UK Ltd. DC was by then negotiating a different deal only to learn that the contract had been made with Racing UK Ltd. The council sought to deny the contract alleging that DR Ltd executive, Mr. Sanderson had no rights. However, in the past, all Mr. Sanderson had been handling negotiations. Therefore, Racing UK Ltd trusted that DR Ltd was acting in its agency authority on behalf of the DC. The court refused to repudiate the contract. It said that the contract was binding between DC(principal) and UK Racing Ltd (third party) since the previous dealings showed that Mr. Sanderson had the authority. Conclusion There is nothing Frank can do except to either rescind the contract with Angela and pay for anticipatory breach of repudiation. Else, he can execute the contract and give Angela the machines. The contract between Bob and Angela was as binding as if Angela made it with Frank. If Frank wanted to avoid the contract, he would have notified all customers including Angela that Bob is no longer his employee and he has terminated his agency relationship. To sum it up, the paper aimed to discuss the power of the exclusion clause. Before the enactment of UCTA IN 1977, many parties enjoyed the shield of the exclusion clause though different courts tried as much as possible to work against it where it seemed to deny justice to one party. The other issue that this paper discussed was the issue of fraudulent misrepresentation in commercial contexts. In the cases of fraud, the innocent party has the right to either rescind the contract, claim for losses or both. Where an innocent party claim for the losses, they include even those that flowed from the fraud. Lastly, the paper discussed the issue of agency. Here the paper concluded that the only way a principal can escape the liabilities is by notify the third parties whenever the principal terminates the contract of an agent. References Poole, J. (2014). Casebook on contract law (12th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. McKendrick, E. (2012). Contract law (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stone, R. (2014). Text, Cases and Materials on Contract Law (2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon [UK]: Routledge. Clarkson, K., Miller, R., Cross, F., Clarkson, K. (2015). Business law. Text and Cases (13th ed.). Cengage Learning. Klass, G. (2010). Contract law in the USA (2nd ed.). Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International. Riches, S., Allen, V., Keenan, D. (2009). Keenan and Riches' business law (9th ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson/Longman. Mann, R., Roberts, B., Smith, L. (2012). Smith Roberson's business law (15th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Zulhafiz, W. (2015). Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977: does it provide a good model in regulating risk allocation provisions in oilfield contracts in Malaysia?. International Journal Of Trade And Global Markets, 8(1), 3. https://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijtgm.2015.067969 Trakic, A. (2015). Statutory protection of Malaysian consumers against unfair contract terms. Common Law World Review, 44(3), 203-221. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473779515600142 Cases Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd [1980] AC 827 The Unfair Contract Terms Act [UCTA], (1977) Smith v Eric Bush [1990] 1 AC 831 George Mitchell v Finney Lock Seeds [1983] QB 28 St Albans City and DC v International Computers Ltd [1996] EWCA Civ 1296 Standard Chartered Bank v Pakistan Shipping Corp [2002] UKHL 43 Smith New Court Securities v Scrimgeour Vickers [1996] 4 All ER 769 Smith New Court Ltd v Scrimgeour Vickers Ltd [1996] UKHL 3 Smith v Eric Bush [1990] 1 AC 831 Racing UK Ltd v Doncaster Racecourse Ltd and Doncaster Metropolitan District Council [2005] EWCA Civ 999

An apple is better than an orange Essay Example

An apple is better than an orange Essay Example An apple is better than an orange Essay An apple is better than an orange Essay An apple is better than an orange. Do you know that fruits are the best friends off healthy body? An apple and an orange can help a person to have a healthy lifestyle. Apples and oranges are two delicious fruits. These fruits look the same, but the truth is that they are different. A person can analyze three main aspects to understand why an apple Is better than an orange: health benefits, flavor, and color. These three aspects convert an apple In the best choice for a person. A person s health Is very Important thats why a person should consume an apple dally. An apple Ingestion benefits are many. An apple Is rich In vitamin C. Also an apple contains an element that prevents aging. Eat dally an apple prevents sclerosis. An orange instead only provides a high level of vitamin C but it is not as complete as an apple. The taste of an orange and an apple are completely different. An apple has a sweet taste. While proving an orange can be a sour experience. The apple flavor is lovely, makes that a person wants more than one apple. Maybe a person doses t like an orange s flavor because it is citric. Its flavor can be distasteful for many people. But an apples flavor can be mystical and pleasant for a person. An apple is more colorful than an orange. An apple can be red, green or yellow but these three colors are beautiful. The red color of an apple makes a person can think in love or passion. Also a red apple is a symbol of temptation. While a yellow or green orange is totally common. Green or yellow orange does not attract peoples attention. A beautiful color can attract the attention of anyone. In conclusion an apple and an orange can look the same. Of course both are delicious fruits but these are very different. The healthy benefits that an apple has, an orange has not . An unique apple s flavor, orange never can has. Finally the color that falls In love Just the apples has. For these three reasons Is that apples are better than oranges

Frankenstein vs. Blade Runner Essay Example

Frankenstein vs. Blade Runner Essay Example Frankenstein vs. Blade Runner Essay Frankenstein vs. Blade Runner Essay Both Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner are classic science fiction stories that deal with the themes of technology’s effect on humanity and the question of ‘What does it mean to be human? ’ In Blade Runner, the film portrays the human race having a diminished sense of ‘humanity’ because the collective cultures and communities that exist in present day are non-existent in Blade Runner’s dystopian earth. Take for example the confrontation between Chief Bryant and Deckard over whether to ‘retire’ the rogue replicants. First Bryant tries to passively push Deckard to come out of retirement; but when Deckard refuses to comply, Bryant resorts to using abusive threats and bullying to get Deckard to do the dirty work and kill the replicants. This theme continues to appear throughout the movie as the human characters bark and snap at each other constantly. Which indicates the lack of respect they have for each other, showing the breakdown of human relationships in this dystopian world. In contrast, the Replicants, who by all accounts are the most synthetic aspects of the film, appear to have the most genuine compassion, companionship, morality, empathy and courtesy for each other. This makes them appear more human than the actual protagonists in the film. Throughout Blade Runner the replicants tend to hold more civil and polite conversations with one another, demonstrating the compassion they have for each other and a caring empathy that lacks between the humans. : By the end of Bladrunner, the replicants appear to have a identity that is more human when compared to the actual humans in the film. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein also functions in a similar way. Frankenstein compares Victor Frankenstein’s creature to Victor himself and by the end, the roles of ‘human’ and ‘creature’ are reversed. Initially the creature is frustrated and is full of hatred for his creator’s abandonment and society’s abhorrence of his appearance. Frankensteins creature explains his anger, saying, There was non among the myriads of men that existed who would pity or assist me; and should I feel kindness towards my enemies? No: from that moment I declared everlasting war against the species, and, more than all, against him who had formed me and sent me forth to this insupportable misery. After realizing that his creator will eventually do nothing to help him cope with being alone in the world and detested by society, the creature kills off Victor’s family, turning the nce urbane gentleman into a monster not unlike the creature. Echoes of the creature’s earlier statements now appear in Victor’s deathbed speech, illustrating the degree in which Victor has become dehumanized. â€Å"I was cursed by some devil,† he cries, â€Å"and carried about with me my eternal hell† (142). Driven by his hatred for the other, the ‘human’ – Victor – distances himself farther and farthe r away from human society and sanity and becomes a creature possessed in finding and killing his creation. After his creator’s passing the creature pays one final visit to his former master and while Victor in the end believes him to be a  insensitive brute, Shelley casts the creature as a martyred classical hero: â€Å"I shall ascend my funeral pile triumphantly and exult in the agony of the torturing flames,† he says (149). Fittingly, the last few pages of the story are taken up with the creature’s own words as he preaches to the reader about his apparent moralistic change in an attempt to give himself self-definition. Another theme that can be seen in both Blade Runner and Frankenstein, is the question of ‘Are creations of science born inherently evil? ’ To put it into context for Blade Runner, Dr. Eldon Tyrell – inventor of the replicants – created machines that functioned almost the same as humans, but they were thrust into the world without any memories and experiences. The replicants were also expected to work and adapt to a changing world with an underdeveloped brain on par with a pre-pubescent child. Dr. Tyrell realised this and thus implanted within them a four-year lifespan with which time they would automatically die. This was due to the fear that the replicants, who were born with a mind of ‘tabula rasa’ or a blank slate, would develop humanistic feelings and become human. From this the movie illustrates that as the replicants (especially the seven rouge replicants) reach the end of their lifespan, they become scared of ceasing to exist and then take drastic measures to allow themselves to live Frankenstein functions in a similar way, the gothic horror novel explores what makes us human and questions the reader to pinpoint what are the attributes of a human being and how do humans become integrated into society. The creature shows that humans and man-made creatures alike are born with inherently good, and nature and the conditions around determine future personality, or the old nature/nurture argument. When Frankenstein’s creation turns against him, the novel shows that it is not the fault of the creature, but rather the wrongdoings of society that forced the creature to act the way he did.

Technical summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technical summary - Essay Example Mouse-adapted H1N1 A/PR/8/34 strains were used for the study. Genomic RNA (full-length) was acquired by infecting MDCK cells; the procedure was done under biosafety level-2 conditions. pFBHAhisKDEL and pFBMelHAhis plasmids were used to produce the recombinant baculoviruses BacHAhisKDEL and BacMelHAhis using Bac-to-Bac baculovirus expression system. The instructions provided by the manufacturer of the system were strictly followed. Control used was baculovirus vector BacNI (this is a baculovirus, which has no foreign gene). There was propagation and amplification of the recombinant baculoviruses in Sf21 insect cells in order to attain infective titers of around 108 plaque-forming units (pfu) (Gomez-Casado 36). Sf21 insect cells and the insect larvae (Trichoplusia ni) were infected using recombinant baculovirus dilution to attain the amount of pfu per dose required for each selection. Total soluble and non-denatured proteins (TSNDPs) were obtained through homogenization; these proteins were from baculoviruses infected T. ni larvae (Gomez-Casado 36). The proteins were prepared using various techniques for western blot (WB) assays and protein size determination. Recombinant HAhisKDEL protein purification from the infected larvae was done using Co2+-based immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) resins (Gomez-Casado 37). The response of HA-specific IgG (immunoglobin G) was measured using ELISA tests. Inhibition tests of hemagglutination were done for each of the duplicate based on instruction from the World Organization for Animal Health. Female mice (6 to 8 weeks old) were immunized and tested for virus challenge. The first group of mice (4) was immunized with TSNDP extract (containi ng HAhisKDEL protein) from the infected larvae. The second group (4 mice) was immunized with purified HAhisKDEL protein. Control group (3 mice) were immunized using TSNDP extract

Should Animal Experimentation Be Permitted Essay

Should Animal Experimentation Be Permitted - Essay Example Experiments on the regeneration of spinal nerve endings were conducted at the University of Zurich. In test-tube testing, nerves dismembered from rats were left open to immunoglobulin that blocked regeneration. The nerves regenerated successfully though not fully. The rats were the animals of choice because there was no other suitable replacement. The use of animals in these studies is important as those involved cannot present a raw form of treatment directly to humans. Opposition of experiments conducted on animals is a threat to medical advances and the furtherance of human knowledge. In relation to medical research, since there are no suitable replacements for animals, animal experimentation should be allowed. On the hand, due to the emotions attached individuals to animals, activists call for a ban as this is a selfish act for humans. The claim also is that, â€Å"will humans keep experimenting and murdering animals for these selfish gains till they are endangered?† Moreo ver, still on medical advances, animal testing should not be permitted as the same animals do not have the complexity of the human body (Murnaghan, par 3). Thus, should the products tested on animals fail on humans; it will be a waste of animals such as rats and mice. As a replacement for animals, computer models and simulations can be used to predict the likely reactions from an experiment (Murnaghan, par 3). Animal experiments should not be permitted if at all they are carried out unnecessarily (Environment commission, p.1). This is, in cases, such as those carried out for aesthetic value where animals should not be allowed for use. Instead, they should test their products by looking for volunteers, as it is the humans to use the products. At the same time, it tests on animals should be allowed as the animals conditions are put into considerations during the tests. In this case, they are not to suffer according to the law. This is such that, when the animals acquire adverse condit ions and complications from the experiments or reach the â€Å"human endpoint† (serious respiratory problems, loss of weight and extreme tumor growth), the animal is euthanized if the case is severe (Vos, p. 1). This is to mean that as long the animals welfare is taken into account, testing should be allowed. In drug experiment, animal testing assists in ensuring the wellbeing of medication taken by human beings or stuffs that human being are uncovered to frequently. Animals are used to test the dangers of these substances on humans thus lowering the potential harm and saving lives. Animal experiments should not be allowed as there are alternatives. Despite not being the best alternatives to animals, they can be used to reduce the numbers of animals used as well as the level of their suffering during experimentation. Replacements could be; cell cultures, which reduce the, number of animals used, use of statistics, which uses comprehensive data to gauge the spread of disease, and finally the use of advanced scanning technology that allows for investigation of disease through human scans rather than performing animal testing(Paul, 7). The use of animals for experimenting increases the knowledge and understanding of the animal being used for the experiment. This means that the animal species being used is a beneficiary of the experiment in that researchers may come up with ways to help the animals survive. This is as in cases where

Mechanisms of Viral Transmission

Mechanisms of Viral Transmission Most of the new viral diseases that enter the human population are enzootic viruses that have changed their hosts. These enzootic viruses tend to have a severe effect in humans. A viral disease emerges in a population through a series of steps the initial infection, the spillover, and lastly the host to host transfer. These steps are further aided or prevented by the virulence factors present in the virus versus the host or human whichever the case susceptibility. It is important to determine the source of these viruses and whether it was via an enzootic or epizootic virus. The barriers that the virus faces when trying to infect a new host are just as important as the role that the environment plays in the viruss transmissibility. There are many factors to consider when looking at viruses how viruses change hosts. New viruses can emerge in a population through contact with an alternative host. Until recently the probability of a virus changing hosts was limited by the restricted contact between the initial host and the alternative host. An increase in contact can be accomplished by introducing the host animal to domestication or any other arena that would serve to increase the likelihood of human contact. Primates that have been infected with simian immunodeficiency virus in Africa were separated from areas of high human populations which in turn significantly limited the chances of the virus changing hosts and infecting humans. The chances of viral contact can also be increased by changes in social and sexual behavior, increased travel, hygiene practices and the increased density of the population that work in favor of the virus and increase the chances of infection in an alternative human host. The significance of initial host to alternative host contact can be examined through the instance in Africa where primates infected with simian immunodeficiency virus in Africa were removed from areas of high human populations and in turn significantly reduced the number of the host changes from primate to humans. The removal of the infected animal from direct human contact does not prevent transmission though intermediate hosts. In Malaysia fruit bats are the reservoirs for the virus nipah and with the large number fruit orchards near pig farms the incidence of contact between the virus and the pig is greatly increased. When it comes to a viruss ability to infect a new host there are new barriers that the virus must learn to penetrate. An important part of a viruss ability to infect new hosts is its ability to infect that hosts cells. In humans the viruss can have trouble entering the host via due to factors that fight off viral infections or something as simple as the surface of human skin can pose as a barrier for entry into an alternative host. When galactosyl producing virions which are not normally found in humans are detected in the body the galactosyl brings about an antibody response that inactivates the virus and prevents its spread. A mechanism of action such as this requires the viruss need to rapidly adapt to bypass the barriers that are set up to prevent viral infection. Even if the relative distance in relation between the initial host and the alternative host of a virus is close the intensity and rate of the contact between the two species is still a factor. When a virus infects a new host that is distantly or closely related to the previous host it does not mean that the host cannot also transfer the virus to more distantly related organism. Integration of a virus into a new host cell is also dependent on the receptor binding that occurs between the virus and host cell. The changes that the virus has to undergo in order to infect the new host cells must coincide with the receptors that are found already on the host cells. A process involving the transfer of the FPV virus to infect canine involved a gain of two mutations that then allowed for it to bind to the canine transferrin receptors. These mutations allowed for the FPV virus to increase its host range successfully gain the ability to infect canines with a new form of the FPV virus CPV. Blockades for the spread of the viral infection once it has infected the new host cells can exist in the form of proteins that prevent the spread of the virus to neighboring cells. The capsid proteins of viruses are stopped at the cytoplasm of the new host cell by TRIM5ÃŽ ± a protein that binds to the capsid of the virus preventing its entry into the host cell. Generalist and specialist viruses are two categories for viruses that can possibly predict and help determine the ranges of hosts that a particular virus can infect; and whether or not a virus is a candidate for host switching. Generalist viruses are expected to have an increased incidence of alternative host shifting while specialist viruses are the opposite and are unable to bypass the barriers in the host cells receptors and other defenses that would require the virus to mutant in order to effectively infect the cell. Most of the specialist cells have trouble making it past the initial infection of the alternative host. Viruses that have a wide range of hosts have a built in advantage already in that they do not have to alter in order to successfully make a change in the types of organism that they can infect. The rate of variation in a virus directly determines the adaptability of a virus into a new host. Viruses that have a high evolving rate are more likely to cross species and cause infection in a new host due to its ability to quickly adapt to the host cell. RNA viruses do not have proofreading mechanisms as well as replication that is error prone and are in that sense much more variable than DNA viruses. DNA viruses are less variable than RNA viruses but some exception exist in that certain single stranded DNA the rate of variation may be similar to that of RNA viruses. A reduction in virus fitness occurs when the virus undergoes mutations that are necessary in order to infect a new host. If the virus is using a intermediate host even more adaptations are required and the virus is further reduced in fitness. The addition of the intermediate hosts help to explain why the influenza A virus infects each of its hosts differently through different mechanisms. In humans for example the infection is found in the lower respiratory tract than in other hosts where it is located in the upper respiratory tract. Reassortments and recombinants aid in a virus adaptability to a new host cell by making a number of genetic changes in a shorter amount of time. The CoV virus of the bat in recombination with another virus was able to make a new virus SARS that can infect humans and other hosts. The intermediate virus is a form of the virus that infects the intermediate host. This virus is the least stable form of the virus. The lower fitted virus loses some of the capability to infect previous parental host types efficiently in addition to the newer crossover hosts they are trying to infect. This phenomenon could account for the low percentage of viral crossover between species. The article did a good job of following the trend and mechanism with which a virus switches hosts. More investigation should be done in the areas of the initial infection of the virus and how it crosses over. More studies should also be done on the likelihood of a virus from another animal making the host switch to infect humans and how that spread can be predicted and prevented. Further studies should be done on how the viruses that make the jump to a species that is not close in the evolutionary chain to who they normally infect to humans. A broader knowledge of how the virus adapts itself to survive in an organism that is so different from its original host also deserves further investigation. If the topics of interest listed are further studied and developed then the article would have a more focused and concise viewpoint instead of the disorganized and sometimes abandoned thread of thoughts that exist at some points within the article.